I think you might be referring to smallpox, although to say that it 'doesn't exist any more' is not strictly true. It has been eradicated as a naturally-occurring disease affecting mankind; however, it does still exist in two or three laboratories in the world. It could, therefore, still be released to plague us once more.
Don't really know but could it be Scurvy caused by lack of some vitamin found in fruit ("C"?), the cure was found by eating limes which is why the Americans often refer to us as Limies.
As you say, P, scurvy is a result of a lack of Vitamin C. If you go on a diet totally without that vitamin, you'll still get that disease. Whilst it may now be rare - in this country at least - one certainly cannot say it 'doesn't exist any more'.
I know this is slightly irrelevant, but speaking of smallpox, the season cliffhanger before last of ER resulted in an outbreak of smallpox, just showing how dangerous the disease can be, and how many people think it no longer exists, but can be found (as QM said) in some labs throughout the world
The seems to be quite a few sites on the web suggesting that columbus's crew may have introduced diseases to the 'new world'. Syphilis seems to be commonly suggested but also as Quizmonster suggests above, Smallpox. This may have killed thousands of native indians.